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"Why are you Spartan women the only ones who can rule men?"
"Because we are also the only ones who give birth to men." |
Women in ancient Sparta were famous for their independence relative to that of other Greek women. In contrast to Athens, in Spartan society girls were reared much like boys, including physical fitness training.[2]
Sparta’s reputation for “exposing” their children at birth, due to a number of physical defects (eugenics),[3] and their emphasis on rearing children, particularly boys, with a focus on war has led many to believe that their society was harshly patriarchal. However, much of the ancient world observed Sparta with great confusion due to their perceived leniency when governing their female population.[4][5]
This leniency is only in relation to the foreign male authors of the time and historians would be quick to ignore it if not for the absence of Spartan texts on the subject. Sparta seems to have purposely not recorded its history, and given that men of the time were disinclined to observe women, particularly those they thought of as acting above their position, readers must rely on what little information they have pertaining to the women of Sparta.[6]
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“Aristotle writes: ‘during the period of their (The Spartans’) empire, many things were administered by the women. Yet what is the difference between having rulers who are ruled by women and an actual government of women?’”[7]
Sparta is seen as an oligarchy, despite also being viewed at times as a diarchy. However, Sparta’s two kings, one taken from each of the royal lines, did not exercise the most control over the community’s decisions. There was also a council of elders known as the gerousia who were well respected during the public assembly, attended by all male Spartiates. The assembly elected ephors who helped to expedite decision making in times of duress. The assembly was ultimately in control of the city-state’s policies and legislature.[8]
Women were forbidden from speaking at the public assembly, but it is mentioned that they still held much influence in the community and often voiced their opinions about political matters, trusting their husbands to deliver their thoughts to the assembly for them.[9]
Although women were not allowed to attend the public assembly, they were considered Spartiates and therefore citizens of Sparta, unlike the perioikoi, free individuals surrounding Sparta but not in the community, and the helots, lifetime servants of the Spartiates.[10]
Citizenship was awarded to those in Sparta who could trace their lineage to the original inhabitants of Sparta and who could maintain the annual fee required to pay for their share of food in the mess hall. This fee was paid through a citizen’s land profits. If this fee could not be paid, a Spartiate would be revoked of their citizenship.[11] This also applied to women because in Sparta a woman could own land.[12]
The dispute over how women in Sparta obtained land and from whom is largely discussed amongst historians, including those of the ancient world like Aristotle and Plutarch.[12] Each adult male Spartiate was given a kleros when he finished agoge, Spartan public school for boys. His kleros was run and tended to by the helots who inhabited the land.[13] Land was most commonly passed down within a family to the sons, however considering the flexibility of Spartan law; fathers were allowed to leave portions of their land to their daughters. In the cases when men had no sons, the daughters would then be heiresses and inherit the entire estate.[14]
Upon marrying a woman would tend both her husband’s and her own land, but her land did not become her husband’s. When a woman was widowed and she had children, the father’s land would pass to his children according to his wishes, but the wife remained in control of her own land.[13]
Dowries also led to confusion over land ownership. Many Spartans believed that brides should be chosen for character and physical sturdiness rather than economic standing and therefore when dowries were given at marriage the wife simply gained control over the dowry. In this way women could become increasingly wealthy inheriting both from their fathers and husbands.[12]
Land transactions were also permitted as gifts.[15]
“Someone contacted a Spartan woman to ask if she would agree to let him seduce her. She said: ‘When I was a child I learned to obey my father, and I did so; then when I became a woman I obeyed my husband; so if this man is making me a proper proposal, let him put it to my husband first.’”[16]
As with inheritance, the practice of marriage is not well enough documented or universal enough to declare a specific practice amongst all Spartans. However, it was a general practice that men did not marry until the age of thirty when they were done with their mandatory military service. Still, some men married in their twenties and simply crept away from the barracks at night to meet their wives. Women married later than most other Greek societies, usually in their late teens and early twenties. Often marriages were bride-captures prearranged with the father’s consent. In bride-captures, the bride was clothed in men’s sandals and cloak and her hair was cut. The groom would then carry the woman away to bed and return to his barracks before the morning.[17]
Another practice that was mentioned by many visitors to Sparta was the practice of “wife-sharing”. In accordance with the Spartan belief that breeding should be between the most physically fit parents, many older men allowed younger more fit men to impregnate their wives. Other unmarried or childless men might even request another man’s wife to bear his children if she had previously been a strong child bearer.[18]
For this reason many considered Spartan women polygamous or polyandrous.[19] This practice was encouraged in order that women bear as many strong-bodied children as they could. The Spartan population was hard to maintain due to the constant absence and loss of the men in battle and the intense physical inspection of newborns.[20]
Mothers were essentially the head of the households in Spartan society. Sons were taken from the house at age seven and put through agoge. Daughters also underwent public education, although girls stayed in their mother’s houses until they were married, around the age of eighteen, and would have developed an overwhelming bond with their mothers. Women were not expected to learn domestic duties like weaving and cleaning, as the estate’s helots would perform these tasks. Therefore, women were more preoccupied with maintaining their physical stature, bearing children, and supervising the helots who worked the land.[2]
At any given moment the Spartan polis would have consisted of predominately women, given that half of the men were at war. When the men weren’t stationed they were preoccupied with training and remained separated from their homes leaving the women to completely dominate the household. This is why socially and politically women had a freedom within the community.[5]
Spartan women were allowed to divorce their husbands without fear of losing their personal wealth. As equal citizens of the community, women could divorce and were not required to or discouraged from remarrying. The unique family unit of Sparta also did not force the woman to relinquish her children, as biological paternity was not important in raising the children. Boys were already taken into agoge and girls would have felt a strong connection to the mother.[19]
“for modesty attended them, and there was no wantonness in their behavior”[21]
Female education is vague and rarely mentioned as in a formal class setting, presumably taking place in the home. It is at least documented that wealthier women wrote letters to their sons and therefore assumed they could read and write. It is more clearly understood that women studied mousike, which consisted of the arts, music, dancing, and poetry. Given the Spartan focus on community as a family, it is considered possible that girls were also taught in a community run institution that was given equally to all Spartiate families.[22]
Female Spartiate babies are remarked to have been significantly more nourished than other female Greek children and in some cases than Spartiate male babies. Many believe this preference is shown to female babies because it is especially important to the Spartans to have physically fit women to bear children. In their youth, female Spartiates ran around naked alongside the boys and competed in gymnastics, wrestling, foot and horse races, and other required physical trials, all in the public’s view.[23][21]
Girls also frequently competed in gymnopaedia the Spartan festival of naked youths. Women were also known to compete in the Olympics and other important athletic events, usually races.[21]
All Greeks worshiped generally the same gods, but location denoted a region’s emphasis on different gods. For instance, Spartans held warrior gods much higher than peaceful gods. Women more specifically worshipped gods associated with beauty, health, fitness, and childbirth (like Eileithyia).[24]
Spartan women also participated in cults centered on local heroes or myths. The Cult of Helen of Sparta was obviously large amongst Spartans as well as the Cult of Cynisca. Cynisca was a famous Spartan chariot racer and princess and was the first woman to win at the Ancient Olympic Games. In following Cynisca, many Spartan women practiced chariot racing and participated in horse races.[24]
There were no female specific ceremonies or festivals, aside from occasional all female chariot races or athletic events. However, this could be a result of women already holding significance in community wide festivals and religious ceremonies.[25]
Spartan female clothing was simplistic and notoriously short. Many foreigners remarked that Spartan women’s thighs were constantly visible. Since women did not weave their own clothes and instead left the creation of goods to the perioikoi, the purchase of elaborate cloth and of metal bracelets was a sign of wealth. It is unknown whether women wore these silver and gold bracelets at all times or if only for religious ceremonies and festivals. Women were also not allowed to grow their hair long.[26]
In accordance with Spartan burial rites, women’s names were etched into their gravestone upon burial only if they died during childbirth, as men received this honor only if they died in active battle.[27]